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Every search will be different. It is essential that the search manager is aware of the capabilities of the resources that will be called upon. Each certain type of resource may be more efficient than another in any given scenario, depending on the circumstances of the case.
The search manager must use the right resource in the right situation. Owing to the many possible scenarios and varying terrain within a search area there must be a wide diversity of available resources.
Back up resources should be considered at all stages of the search operation if it is to continue beyond the first operational period. However tempting it may be to get all available searchers into the field immediately, the question of relief and continuation must be addressed.
These back up resources may be available from any group such as volunteer organisations, the police or they may have to come from a neighbouring area. The experienced and knowledgeable search manager will know what is available to him/her and should plan for this eventuality from the outset.
Many volunteer rescue organisations consist of a number of ‘sections’ and therefore have an in-built resilience. This provides for an initial deployment with the second or other sections available for relief and back up.
Search is an emergency – do not be tempted to call off a search just because darkness has fallen. The search manager will have to decide upon the best way to proceed and with what resources. In some types of terrain only specially trained persons may be able to continue searching for safety reasons.
Following the initial report and instigation of a search operation certain immediate actions must be considered. Such action must be decided upon even while the investigation is progressing and well in advance of the receipt of all the available information.
Confinement – Limit the Search Area
In the very early stages of a search the lost person may be mobile and whilst mobile, the search area is expanding.
If the search area can be limited by ensuring the subject does not travel beyond the confinement then the search area will be smaller and able to be searched in less time. The number of searchers required will be fewer and the chances of locating the subject quickly are increased.
In applying the theory, confinement is an initial tactic used to limit the search area.
Confinement Methods
Road/path/trail blocks – these should be established on any route the subject can possibly take.
Lookouts – Obvious vantage points such as high ground offering good views into the search area should be posted with lookouts with binoculars wherever possible.
Track Traps – Here, the searchers would lightly brush off an area on a path/track and this would regularly be checked for signs of track left by the subject. This would indicate whether the subject has passed the point.
String lines – Some rescue groups in the US have designed this method of confinement where a searcher unrolls a spool of string from his rucksack as he/she walks through/around the search area. The string leaves a visible trail for the subject to follow. In some cases another member of the search team would follow the ‘stringliner’ and tie arrows onto the string indicating the way back to the base camp, the idea being that the subject would follow the arrows to safety.
SEARCH TACTICS
These are the methods, procedures and techniques used to conduct the search, including:
Depending on the urgency factor the search manager can employ PASSIVE or ACTIVE tactics to locate the subject.
Passive
Wait and let the subject walk out on his own.
Confinement tactics
Attraction the use of visual or sound techniques to bring the subject to the searchers such as:
Lights Beacons Flares Balloons Fires/smoke PA systems Whistles Sirens Firearms discharge
When using sound attraction techniques the search teams must listen for a reply.
Active
This involves deploying resources to locate the subject.
Initial Search Response
As soon as the first resources are available the search manager must decide how best to use them to the greatest effect. He could wait until all his resources are available for a major search effort. This is very unlikely and ill-advised.
If the search manager deploys his first resources in the high POA or most likely places it may actually result in the subject being located with the minimum of resources or a clue providing a direction of travel may be located.
Initial Resource Options
Human trackers
The general principles of tracking are discussed elsewhere in this handbook. In relation to initial searches, though, they can be extremely useful in identifying a direction of travel and thereby focusing the search efforts.
If a last known position (LKP) can be ascertained the tracker will attend that location and carry out searches at that LKP by either conducting a perimeter search or sign cutting.
Sign cutting is a detailed examination of the location either around the perimeter of the LKP or when carried out perpendicular to the direction of travel of the subject. This way the tracker is less likely to interfere with or destroy clues himself.
It is important that the scene is not contaminated prior to the arrival of the tracker. Again, the search manager must judge the benefits of waiting for a tracker against the time taken to start the search with other resources. A tracker may not always be available of course either specifically for this operation in question or at all.
Hasty Team
A hasty team will consist of perhaps 3 highly trained and mobile searchers with the task of checking the areas where the subject is more likely to be found, such as roads, clearings, trails, road/track junctions etc. They can be extremely efficient due to their speed and ability to locate and recognise/understand clues.
Hasty teams should be track aware trained and clue conscious, with good navigational and first aid skills. They should also be well equipped and capable of working on their own for prolonged periods.
Active Search Tactics
At some stage all available resources (allowing for back up) will have to be committed to the search in order to locate the subject and/or clues. The types of resources are similar to those deployed at the initial response stage but will be more widely available and deployed to sectors of high probability within the areas identified within the search area. These include:
The aim of utilising resources is to maximise the probability of success (POS) by using the most likely resource to find the subject (POD) in the area where the subject is most likely to be.
Another way of saying this, of course, is POA x POD = POS
Search Patterns and Techniques
A simple way of describing the methods of applying resources can be by using the term of ‘stage’ searches. Some use ‘type’ searches but the meaning is the same.
STAGE 1
This is best described as the initial response or hasty search where the first resources arriving on the scene are deployed to check the most likely areas as described earlier in this chapter. It will not be a thorough search and should not be confused with such. In fact, the term hasty ‘search’ should be avoided. The term ‘rapid visual check’ is often used in the context of early crime scene examination by police search teams. The reason for such checks are really the same, that is to check the most likely areas for obvious evidence before they are lost, destroyed or contaminated in some way. There is no reason why similar terms should not be used in lost person searches, for example, ‘a hasty team is deployed to check the most likely areas’.
There is the very real danger that if the word ‘search’ is used then to the untrained eye the sector/areas have been searched when, in reality, they have only been ‘checked’.
This stage search would also include road patrols by vehicles. These patrols would be continued as the search progresses.
STAGE 2
The planning process has taken place and is continuing while the hasty checks are being conducted. Full searches of sectors will commence with the aim of maximising the POS. These stage 2 searches will include several types of resources and methods.
STAGE 3
This will be the time in the search where more personnel can be deployed, particularly to open areas. There will be a more thorough, slower and highly systematic search. It could otherwise be termed as saturating the area and would only be used as a last resort or where other methods are not deemed suitable and where a very high POD is sought.
Stage 2 Techniques
This is a method where teams of three work together, one as a ‘guide’, perhaps with a compass and the other two working each side of the guide and searching likely areas within their direction of travel as they progress. This can be referred to as ‘purposeful wandering’. Although the team works independently as a three man unit, a number of units can work together in larger sectors.
X is the guide or compass bearer O are the searchers who will wander in order to check likely spots but being guided in the direction of the compass bearer.
If the searcher sees, for instance, a rock or thicket he/she will temporarily divert from the bearing and check these areas, then resume on the general bearing. Studies have shown this increases the POD substantially.
Critical Separation
This is a technique used for searching areas and the searchers have to adopt a certain spacing between team members in order to ensure the subject or clue is located. The distance between searchers is important as it will vary between different types of terrain. For instance spacing in a dense copse would be closer than in an open field with short grass.
The distance between searchers will depend on the difficulty level of search taking the terrain into account.
The distance between searchers (critical separation) is established by the following steps:
Should terrain conditions vary markedly or an area needs to be searched for a different size clue then the procedure can be easily and quickly re-done. This procedure is often referred to as the ‘rain dance’. The search manager will, wherever possible, try to keep the same terrain for each separate sector within the search area.
Sound Sweeps
Using sound as an attraction or search technique is only possible where the subject is thought to be responsive. The searchers can be spaced relatively widely apart, say, 200 metres. They can either be positioned around the boundary of a search area or they can conduct the sound sweep as they move through it.
It should be noted again that this is only a useful method when the subject is able to respond. The POD otherwise would be extremely low. It is, however, another useful method to employ in conjunction with others.
The team members will possess, in addition to normal equipment, personal radios and whistles. The team leader or the base camp will call a count down on the radio ‘5-4-3-2-1-BLAST’. This is the command for all searchers to stop and blow their whistles together, as far as possible. All searchers then listen for a response. If nothing is heard the sweep continues and further count down and whistle blasts continue at appropriate intervals.
TRACKING
Tracking is a relatively new and certainly under-utilised concept in the application of search theory. There are many books on the subject, among them ‘The Fundamentals of Mantracking’ by Don Cooper, from which some parts of the following section are extracted.
When police officers attend the scene of any crime it is natural for them to be aware of clues or signs the offender has left. These indications would be followed up by scenes of crime officers.
Unfortunately, when searching for lost persons the signs of a track are often not recognised and are invariable even destroyed unwittingly. The potential for evidence finding is simply not considered in the vast majority of cases.
Tracking is simply a means of following signs of a track left by someone or something. It can detect the direction of movement of a subject.
The ability to track is an acquired skill which requires a serious amount of time to practice with patience and a willingness to learn.
Tracking can be applied very early on in the search as described in the section on ‘hasty checks’ and supplements other search and rescue resources and tactics.
Theoretically, a subject can travel in any direction from the PLS/LKP. Should the direction of travel be ascertained early on by a tracker finding a few footprints or other marks there is the potential to reduce the search area to perhaps a 30° sector.
Sign cutting is the start point of any track. It was a type of track search developed by the US border patrol which assumed that if the subject was at the PLS or LKP then that person has undoubtedly left evidence. Effective sign cutting can find that evidence, thereby deducing a direction of travel.
When is Sign Cutting Performed?
It should be commenced at the earliest opportunity after the initial report. Morning and afternoon are the best times to track due to the sun being lower in the sky. Trackers utilise light to find shadows in tracks so searching in midday sun is not very productive, although not impossible. Tracking at night can be quite easy as the tracker controls the light source.
Unfortunately, as search and rescue missions are an emergency, we may well not have the choice as to the best time to track
Tracker ‘sign cuts’ perpendicular to suspected direction of travel of the subject:
The tracker will look into the direction of the light exposing any shadows hence making a track more visible.
Tracking is best performed at a place where the subject is likely to have left some evidence and where a track would most likely be seen. It is most effective when used in the early stages of the search when evidence will be least contaminated.
Evidence left by the subject can quickly deteriorate under certain weather conditions. If a clue is found it should be protected whilst it is being evaluated. It is possible to track in the rain but each situation is different and the experienced tracker will advise the search manager concerning the likely prospects of success.
Trackers will look for many signs including footprints, full or partial, bent grass, broken twigs, disturbed brush, compressed stones and flattened soil.
The search manager should always seek the opinion of the tracker who will decide when and where a track can be effective. Even the most difficult terrain and weather conditions may produce clues.
The art of tracking is stride-based and involves searching for the next track/sign at the next stride length. This is the set distance between the footsteps measured from a certain point such as heel to heel or toe to toe. The tracker uses a device for measuring this distance called a sign cutting stick.
Perimeter Cutting
This is used when the direction of travel is not known but where it is believed the subject has been. If the tracker ‘cutting’ the perimeter can find a sign/track then the direction of travel can be ascertained.
Whenever possible the subject’s shoe sole pattern should be obtained. This will obviously assist the tracker but when copied to all searchers it potentially reduces the chance of evidence destruction. SEARCH AND RESCUE DOGS
Extracts from articles written by Jeff Doran and Marcia Koenig are included within this section.
Search and rescue dogs in the UK are less common than in the US. However, many local search groups either have their own or can call upon them for assistance.
Search and rescue dog handlers will be well equipped individuals and will be familiar with basic search and rescue procedures.
Basic Search and Rescue Dog Concepts
Air Scent
The human body is constantly shedding 40,000 skin cells each minute. These carry bacteria and secretions from the body, thereby forming a ‘vapour’ in the air which produces an odour of human scent.
Ground Scent
Ground scent is made up of crushed/disturbed vegetation where the subject has walked and shed human cells.
Tracking Dogs
The tracking dog follows the crushed vegetation caused by the subject’s footsteps. The dog will follow the track very closely and is characterised by being in the ‘heads down’ posture, sniffing the ground for evidence. The dog basically follows the footsteps, not the human scent.
Trailing Dogs
Bloodhounds are the traditional tracking/trailing dogs. They are oriented to the body cells which have fallen to the ground along the subject’s route. The dog may cut some corners of a track and may move across it and back again, combining tracking and trailing.
Air Scenting Dogs
These are oriented to airborne cells and the dog’s head will be held high, looking as if it is searching air currents. The dog may follow a trail if one is available but the basic orientation is towards the airborne scent of the subject. Such a dog may cut across a track entirely and miss out large lengths of the subject’s route. For instance if the subject travels in the shape of a ‘U’ the dog may cut straight across the top of the ‘U’ instead of going around it.
An air scenting dog is best used in a high probability area and can be worked across or into air currents. Their handlers like to work in areas where no one else is present as the dogs are trained to find the source of any human scent.
Dogs can be very useful during night searches because they have better senses and mobility. Scenting conditions are enhanced due to the differences in temperatures.
A dog is more effective in finding an evasive or unresponsive subject who, whilst being able to hide from searchers will not be able to hide his scent.
Aircraft Search Methods
The advantages and limitations of aircraft have already been discussed. Whatever these may be an aircraft can be viewed, in the same way as any other one resource, as part of the ‘package’ or ‘toolkit’.
Aircraft Search Methods/Patterns
Contour The aircraft follows the elevation contours from higher to lower terrain.
Route The aircraft will follow a route if it is known.
Parallel route search The route is searched on each side with overlapping passes.
Expanding Square The aircraft starts from the centre and works out in an expanding square.
Area Grid Searching A grid search is conducted across the entire area after working out appropriate track spacing.
All flight logs, plans and maps should be retained and available for future reference.
Search Periods
The search operation is commenced with the implementation of the initial response. This is the investigation and deployment of first resources whilst the planning prepares for the main search. This main search can be further sub-divided into operational periods.
Operational Periods
There are many ideas of how long and what the operational period is for. The initial response is aimed at high probability areas with hasty teams and/or the first teams capable of being deployed. The areas concerned will be searched at high speed as a priority and will generally last for the first couple of hours of a mission. During this initial response the main search is being planned.
First Operational Period
This will generally be the first days search effort and again is directed towards the high probability areas with speed a priority. It will generally end around 6PM or 6AM. This makes subsequent scheduling easier for either 8 or 12 hour periods. There is no hard and fast rule as to how long this first operational period should last, nor indeed subsequent ones. A lot would depend on the time of start. Some example timings are given shortly.
Second Operational Period
This phase may be the first full period or shift worked by the resources. It will be aimed at new high probability areas and researching areas that have already been searched, perhaps with different resource types. It will be terminated at either 6PM or 6AM.
Subsequent Operational Periods
This phase will be aimed at high and low probability areas simultaneously and will probably involve 12 hour periods for the remainder of the search.
Throughout all periods the investigation and planning for the next period will continue.
Example of search timings:
1000hrs First report 1000hrs to 1200hrs Initial action/response 1000hrs to 1800hrs First operational period 1800hrs to 0600hrs Second operational period 0600hrs to 1800hrs Third operational period
Subsequent operational periods will continue for 12 hour durations. In some particularly gruelling searches due to difficult terrain or bad weather the operational period may either be shortened to allow the relief of tired searchers by fresh resources or longer rest periods will have to be allowed.
The above timings are guidelines only. The actual ones will be decided upon by the search manager in consultation with the overhead team taking all issues into account such as urgency factors and resource availability.
This will require forward planning throughout the search operation and will not be unusual for police officers who quite often have to cater for a shift change within an operation.
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DISCLAIMER This site, whilst created from the perspective of a police officer, is a personal work. It does not necessarily represent the views or policy of Devon and Cornwall Constabulary. The contents of this site are written in good faith, however the author can accept no responsibility for any loss, harm or damage howsoever caused by the use of content from this site. You may copy and re-distribute content from this site provided the above disclaimer clearly accompanies any copy. The content of this site is the copyright of Michael H Rose and any copies or distribution of the contents must be accompanied with the copyright details and acknowledgement of the author
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